Developmental psychology and psychopathology

Childhood Period

The childhood period can be defined as comprising early childhood, the preschool period, and the school period, lasting from the first year of life (when the child stops breastfeeding) until the onset of puberty. Even then, it is not entirely accurate to say that childhood is over, as adolescents are, in many ways, still “children”—they just no longer want to be, and this phase brings about more intense changes, particularly due to the beginning of manifest sexual development and sexual interests.

The earliest stage of childhood is unconscious and characterized by so-called “childhood amnesia,” meaning the inability to recall that phase of life. During psychological assessment, individuals typically know very little about this period, and their memories of the preschool stage are also often faded. However, self-awareness begins to develop around the age of three, when the child starts to distinguish between the “self” and the “non-self,” initiating the formation of a self-concept.

Awareness of belonging to a particular sex or gender also begins to emerge, and it is in the preschool period that certain gender nonconformities may be observed. These can significantly impact the child’s psychological development, especially when they do not align with the heteronormative standards of the broader society.

Psychological problems or disorders that arise in childhood and adolescence can sometimes be very serious. One of the biggest challenges in addressing children’s mental health issues are adults, particularly their parents, who often struggle to accept that their child may have a psychological disorder. However, early detection of causes and symptoms of mental disorders yields much better outcomes in treatment than when these issues are repressed or denied.

A particularly sensitive issue involves children with intellectual disabilities, or more broadly, children with impairments in psychophysical development. The core difficulty often does not lie in the children themselves—since they can learn and develop within the limits of their developmental capacities—but rather in the parents, who may refuse to accept reality. These parents often require psychological support themselves.

It is a misconception to think that these children need a psychologist; in many such cases, it is the parents who need psychological intervention. Similarly, children with behavioral disorders would be much easier to treat if their parents were treated alongside them, as parents often play a major role in causing psychological issues—whether through genetic factors or parenting methods and techniques.

Some mental disorders typically associated with adulthood can also appear in children. This includes anxiety disorders, PTSD, stress- and trauma-related disorders, and mood disorders. However, certain disorders are more characteristic of childhood, such as ADHD, psychomotor disorders, learning difficulties, conduct disorders, and oppositional defiant disorder.

In some children, symptoms of psychotic disorders (e.g., schizophrenia) may also be observed, especially due to genetic predisposition to such illnesses. Increasingly, the topic of psychopathic traits in children, even from preschool age, is being discussed—although there is considerable debate within science and clinical practice about whether it is appropriate to speak of personality disorders in children. This is mainly because it is difficult to clearly distinguish such conditions from behavioral disorders at that developmental stage.

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

ADHD or Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder is a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects attention (a cognitive ability related to concentration and necessary for performing specific tasks), impulse control, and hyperactivity. Symptoms usually appear before the age of twelve, and are often noticeable as early as preschool age. The disorder is characterized by inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity.

Inattention refers to difficulties in focusing and concentrating, especially during tasks that require mental or intellectual effort, as well as problems with following and organizing intellectual activities. This disorder is often most noticeable in school settings, where children struggle to maintain focus during structured activities and consequently exhibit hyperactive and impulsive behaviors.

Impulsivity refers to the difficulty such children (or adults, as ADHD can also occur in adulthood, although it is more problematic in children because they are not fully aware that they have an issue, unlike adults who may recognize it) have in waiting their turn, interrupting others, or making quick decisions without considering consequences.

Hyperactivity is expressed through excessive restlessness; these children find it very difficult to sit still and are hard to manage in school or during focused tasks requiring mental effort. They are unable to remain seated or stay calm for extended periods and constantly seek physical activity.

Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder (DMDD)

Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder (DMDD) involves frequent and uncontrolled outbursts of anger (verbal and/or physical aggression that is disproportionate to the situation), chronic irritability (persistent anger, moodiness, and sensitivity between episodes of outbursts), inappropriate stress responses, and difficulties in emotional regulation (manifested as excessive anger in everyday situations, sudden mood swings, and difficulty calming the child after an outburst).

These symptoms must be present for at least one year, occur at least three times per week, and manifest in at least two different settings (e.g., school, family environment, peer relationships) to meet diagnostic criteria.

Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)

This disorder in children and adolescents is characterized by a pattern of angry, irritable, argumentative, and defiant behavior directed toward authority figures (parents, teachers, educators, and other adults). These children often argue with adults, refuse to comply with requests or rules (e.g., refusing to do homework, clean their room, wake up on time, go to school, or remain calm in class), tease others, and blame others for their own mistakes or inappropriate behavior—an early sign of a projective defense mechanism, which may later lead to emotional instability in adulthood.

These children are often very distressed, easily offended, sensitive to criticism, and exhibit vindictive behavior (at least twice within a six-month period, which is required for diagnosis). These symptoms are considered clinically significant when they interfere with school, family, or social functioning, and consistent discipline is essential.

Such behavior often arises in the context of inconsistent parenting styles (e.g., one parent uses a permissive style while the other is authoritarian), which is why parents must often be involved in the re-education or behavioral treatment of the child. The child needs to be treated across all settings in which they exhibit inappropriate behavior patterns.

Failure to treat this disorder in childhood may lead to more serious psychological consequences in adolescence and adulthood. This disorder can easily progress into antisocial personality disorder, with individuals becoming defiant and engaging in unlawful behavior, which may result in criminal proceedings, sanctions, and eventual institutionalization (in juvenile detention centers or prisons).

Conduct Disorder

Conduct Disorder refers to significantly more serious behaviors than those seen in Oppositional Defiant Disorder, involving persistent violations of the rights of others or societal norms. Symptoms include: aggressiveness toward people or animals (e.g., starting fights, bullying, peer violence), destruction of property (vandalism, breaking things, arson), tendency to lie or steal, and serious rule violations (running away from home or school, breaking classroom or school rules, committing criminal acts).

If left untreated, this disorder may develop into Antisocial Personality Disorder in adulthood. It is particularly concerning because it poses a danger to others more than to the individual themselves, and it carries social and legal consequences.

A prerequisite for the diagnosis of Antisocial Personality Disorder is the presence of Conduct Disorder in childhood. However, in practice, it is also observed that some individuals did not display such behaviors in childhood or were not diagnosed with this disorder, yet still go on to show antisocial behavior and personality dysfunction in adulthood—often due to various life circumstances.

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)

Autism Spectrum Disorders are an increasing challenge in both psychological and special education practice, highlighting the growing need for the involvement of psychologists (in detection) and educators (in treatment). Practical experience shows that these disorders are becoming more noticeable among preschool-aged children, and that the use of technological devices (mobile phones, tablets, televisions) significantly contributes to the development of such disorders. More children are being diagnosed with ASD due to altered developmental pathways when raised more with technology than with social interaction.

These disorders involve deficits in initiating and maintaining social communication and interaction across various contexts. Children often show restrictive or repetitive behaviors and interests, with frequent inappropriate or unusual sensory responses to social stimuli. Symptoms may appear early in childhood, particularly when social demands increase and the child begins to struggle with adaptation to social environments.

ASD may present with or without intellectual developmental delay, and with or without speech disorders. Some children with ASD do not begin speaking at the expected age, though they may understand spoken language. Communication with these children often lacks reciprocity—they may not respond, avoid eye contact, or fail to respond to their name. They often struggle to understand nonverbal cues (gestures, facial expressions, eye contact) and have difficulty forming and maintaining social interactions (including friendships, and later, romantic and other relationships).

These children tend to prefer solitary activities, have difficulty adapting to social norms, and may engage in repetitive movements such as rocking, spinning, or hand-flapping. They often insist on routines and rituals and show strong resistance to change, following a perceived order and reacting strongly when disrupted. They may have an intense focus on specific interests (e.g., numbers, trains, certain objects or people) and be overly sensitive to sounds, textures, lights, or show unusual pain tolerance.

Additional symptoms can include anxiety, nervousness, and unusual responses to social interaction, whether by avoiding or excessively seeking engagement. A previously used term for a milder form of autism was Asperger’s syndrome, where individuals have average or above-average intelligence, strong language skills, but difficulties in social interactions and intense, narrow interests. Sometimes, children develop “normally” and then suddenly lose speech, motor, or social skills.

ASD is typically diagnosed in early childhood. While there is no cure, early intervention (such as speech therapy, social skills training, and behavioral therapies) can help children improve their abilities and adapt to challenges.

Learning Difficulties or Disabilities

Learning difficulties or disabilities in children appear as specific neurodevelopmental or neurological disorders that affect their ability to learn in a typical way, despite having adequate intelligence. These disorders include dyslexia, dyscalculia, and dysgraphia.

Dyslexia refers to difficulties with reading, spelling, and writing, despite good cognitive abilities. Dyscalculia involves difficulties in understanding and performing mathematical tasks. Dysgraphia refers to difficulties in writing, spelling, and organizing thoughts in written form.

These disorders are not related to intelligence, but rather affect specific areas of learning. Therefore, children with such difficulties need specialized support in order to achieve appropriate academic success in school.

Psychomotor Disorders (Tics)

Psychomotor disorders refer to involuntary, repetitive movements or vocalizations, commonly known as tics. Motor tics may be simple (brief, rapid, involving small muscle groups such as blinking, head jerking, nose twitching, shoulder shrugging, facial grimacing) or complex (coordinated movements involving larger muscle groups, such as jumping, touching objects or people, spinning the body, echopraxia—imitating others’ movements, or making inappropriate or obscene gestures—copropraxia).

Tics may appear suddenly, often triggered by high stress or traumatic experiences. They can be transient or chronic, and may be motor, vocal, or both.

In Tourette’s Syndrome, both motor and vocal tics are present. Vocal tics can include grunting, throat clearing, or uttering obscene words.